Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 4 Words: 1274 Downloads: 8 Date added: 2019/03/25 Category History Essay Level High school Tags: Malcolm X Essay Martin Luther King Essay Did you like this example? I know that a lot of people are familiar with the name malcolm little or better known as malcolm x. Not many people know the background on the name malcolm x instead of malcolm little. Well the background on that is little was inherited from his ancestors when they were slaves. So malcolm ended up changing his last name to x because it really symbolizes his african name el-hajj Malik el-shabazz. Malcolm x was a activist and outspoken public voice of the black muslim faith,and challenged the mainstream of the civil rights movement and the nonviolent pursuit of integration by Martin Luther King jr. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Martin Luther King Jr. and Malcolm X" essay for you Create order Malcolm and Martin also urged followers to be able to defend themselves against white aggression like the klu klux klan (kkk) by any means necessary. Malcolm had developed a strong mistrust for the kkk at a young age But anyways you might know at least one when they burned his childhood home down and accused malcolms father of burning his own house down. You might know some things that he is most known or popular for like being a african american leader who was a important key spokesman for the nation of islam epitomized the Black power philosophy. Somethings people dont usually know is that malcolm played a role in the civil rights movement. In the early 1960s he became frustrated with all the non-violent, integrated struggle for the civil rights and worried that african americans would ultimately lose control of their own movement. Malcolm urged followers to defend themself against white discrimination and aggression by any means necessary as the public voice of the black muslim faith. Malcolm learned from the choices he has made in his lifetime in fact they have made his a better person for an example when he was arrested and sentenced ten years in prison in 1946 for larceny for those long ten years he would read constantly from the prisons library in the attempt to make up for the years of missing education from when he dropped out of high school. When malcolm was in prison in 1950 he wrote a letter to the president Harry Truman in which he had declared himself a communist opposed to the korean war. One day malcolm got bailed out of the prison by one of the members from the nation of islam. After that time that he spent in prison molded him into a different person and with the influence of his fellow inmates he was lead to live a different life style. And from that one experience in his life it changed everything that he believed in, known, thought about, and everything that he stood for after that making the man that we know today as malcolm x. Then one day malcolm was bailed out of the prison by one of the members from the Nation of islam. When malcolm got out of prison he made a speech at a event and Elijah Muhummad liked it and saw that malcolm had a good future ahead of him and this all happened in chicago. After elijah noticed he asked malcolm if he would like to lead the black muslims so that african americans could set up their own schools, support networks,and churches. Thats when malcolms life took a full turn and started to increase. In his speech at King solomon baptist church he talked about different christian ministers like Dr.Martin Luther King jr and malcolm said that he is not a person to fight for the fronts of something but says that I am a Black nationalist freedom fighter. Malcolm always said that Islam was his religion but he believed his religion is his own personal business. In March 1964,Malcolm left the nation of Islam and charted his own course of militant black nationalism. In one of Malcolms speeches he stated that Islam is his religious philosophy but his political economical and social philosophy is black nationalism. Something else that Malcolm often said was that if you bring up the topic religion we will have differences and we will have arguments but if you keep your religion at home and keep your religion in the closet that will only be between you and god. The Historical root of black nationalism can be traced all the way back to the 19th century to african american leaders such as Abolitionist Martin Delany. In the 20th century black nationalism was greatly influenced by Marcus Garvey who founded the United Negro Improvement Association (UNIA) in 1914 in jamaica. The United Negro Improvement Association was dedicated to racial pride, economic self sufficiency and the formation of a independent black nation of africa. This group believed in the brotherhood of man and the fatherhood of god. One of there popular mottos was One God! One Aim! One Destiny! In one of malcolms speeches he said that the white man wouldnt allow a black or african american man to come and gain control over the economy of his community. So why should a black man let a white man come and take control over the economy of his community. Malcolm believed that the political philosophy of black nationalism only means that the black man should control the politics and the politics in his own community. So the economic philosophy is really the black nationalism which means that we should own and operate and control the economy of our community. Something else that he said was If your afraid of black nationalism your afraid of revolution and if you love revolution you love black nationalism- Malcolm x message to the grassroots. These are the most said quotes that malcolm x said Education is the passport to the future for tomorrow belongs to those who prepare for it today or just the quote the future belongs to those who prepare for it today. And another quote is If your not careful the newspapers will have you hating the people who are being oppressed, and loving the people who are doing the oppressing. When malcolm was in the nation of islam elijah muhammad was his so called right hand man. But elijah was having an extramarital relationship with his six secretaries and had thirteen children with them all and elijahs son ended up telling malcolm that. And so that led to a problem to malcolm once elijahs son made him aware of that. After he was aware of that he left the nation of islam. Later on in life in June 1964 the nation of islam filed a lawsuit to reclaim the possession of malcolms home in Queens new york. After a court appeared regarding the eviction malcolm told explosive secrets like the one about elijah. People were threatening malcolms life for the secrets that he knew and would tell about the nation of islam Before malcolm left the nation of islam he spoke about the President John F. Kennedy when he was assassinated on November 22,1963 and elijah muhammad didnt want the nation of islam to comment on the assassination but malcolm did. Malcolm made controversial remarks about the president kennedys assassination which elijah did not want and this led to malcolms censorship by elijah. When that happened malcolm was on the bench for a while. Somethings people were not in knowledge of. Sources Documentary video Legendary speech The ballot or bullet Universal Negro Improvement Association https://www.britannica.com/topic/Universal-Negro-Improvement-Association U.S History www.ushistory.org/us/54h.asp Biography https://www.biography.com/people/malcolm-x-9396195 Malcolm Xs Explosive comment about Elijah Muhammad https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pibiglqFkj8

How Democratic Is China Essay - 1727 Words

Democracy has been spread around the world due to globalization, and there are countries that are more democratic than others. Democracy is essentially a variable that can be measured. Democracy can be defined as a set of practices and principles, such as political participation and electoral processes, that protect freedoms and at minimum include the presence of free and fair elections, the protection of minority groups, the respect of human rights, and governed by majority rule . The People’s Republic of China (of which will be referred to as its conventional short form China) has established itself as a communist state, being one of the few remaining functioning ones in the world. This report will be answering the question â€Å"how democratic is China?† and will be looking at multiple variables to measure that, using a combination of variables from the models offered in The Economist Intelligence Unit’s index of democracy by Laza Kekic and The Quality of Demo cracy by Larry Diamond and Leonardo Morlino. The reasoning for using The Economist model is due to the scoring process that it uses, allowing for there to be an actual number on a scale for how democratic China is. China is an authoritarian regime; therefore it is known to have minimal aspects of democracy to it, so not all variables in The Economist will be used. 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While studying comparative politics there is one regime that stands out to me. The rise of China as one of today’s economic powers is fascinatingRead MoreNew Growth And Reform Of China1699 Words   |  7 Pages New Growth and Reform of China Siyu Sun 1377625 University of Alberta Author Note This paper was prepared for Econ 211, Section A, taught by Professor Xu. Abstract Export was the main growth from 1994 in China, but China has new growth engines in recent years. In addition, China has made some reforms in social, politics and economics for a better development. Some people think China did a right decision to getRead MoreThe Democracy And Human Rights1359 Words   |  6 Pagesprotests have occurred across the country for change to a democratic system so that citizens can finally elect the people that represent them. This would give citizens more power, but as result, take some away from the government, which they do not want. The Chinese government needs to listen to their citizens and change to a democratic system to give them more freedom and make them happier. The status of democracy and human rights in China is not where it could be. Both are limited in the following

The Crucible Character Analysis Free Essays

In the play ‘The Crucible’ by Arthur Miller, the author uses characters from the 17th century witch-hunts to show the corruption behind McCarthyism. The play was published in 1953, a time when McCarthyism was actively affecting and contributing to society. The book is filled with false accusations during 1692, in order to relate to the time period it was released. We will write a custom essay sample on The Crucible Character Analysis or any similar topic only for you Order Now In the play, the character Abigail Williams is in love with John Proctor, a married man, who she had an affair with. Abigail tries to win John over by using witchcraft. When she is caught by her uncle, Reverend Parris she is afraid of being punished, so she blames their slave, Tituba. This accusation sparks a time of fear and accusation of witches in Salem. When the witch-hunt begins, Abigail realizes that she can use her lies to gain power in Salem. She thinks she can use this power to get rid of John Proctor’s wife, Elizabeth, and that when Elizabeth is gone John will love her. Abigail is driven by fear and envy, and her corrupt decisions lead to the downfall of Salem society. Abigail Williams is a seventeen-year-old orphan, who lives with her uncle, Rev. Parris. Abigail was fired from her job as a servant by Goody Proctor because she had an affair with John Proctor. She believes that her affair with John Proctor is true love and that the only thing standing between them is his wife. Abigail states in Act 1, â€Å"I have something better than hope, I think! † (Miller 22) because she believes that John has made a promise to her by breaking of chastity for her, that he loves her. Her envy of Elizabeth leads to her making very bad decisions. These decisions cause Abigail to be afraid of being convicted of witchcraft, so she accuses others, making them scapegoats for her wrong-doings. When Abigail and the other girls go dancing in the woods Abigail tries to drink a charm to kill John Proctor’s wife. When they are caught dancing she forces all the girls to lie about what happened. She puts the blame on Tituba. They continue to make accusations against people in Salem. â€Å"I saw Goody Sibber with the Devil! †Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ â€Å"I saw Alice Barrow with the Devil! †Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ â€Å"I saw Goody Hawkins with the Devil! †Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ (48) People are hanging because of the girls’ false claims. Abigail then tries to get Elizabeth hanged for witchcraft but Elizabeth is allowed to live because she is pregnant. By the end of the play, Abigail tries to flee with John but his refusal to leave with her finally makes her realize that he will never love her. After this, she only has fear left as a motivator. She flees with Mercy Lewis on a boat with all of Rev. Parris’ money. John is hanged because he refuses to give up his name. â€Å"The legend has it that Abigail turned up later as a prostitute. †(146) Although most of her actions caused pain for others, it did eventually lead to her own downfall. â€Å"Elizabeth Proctor married again, four years after Proctor’s death. †(126) It is ironic that the person Abigail set out to hurt the most was one of the few people who went on to live a better life. Since Abigail is motivated by envy and fear, her decision to fuel the witch-hunt creates tragedy by the end of the play. Everything she does causes John’s death as well as the hanging of countless others, the innocent people of Salem. This play really captures the effects of false accusations and theocracy when given power. The witch-hunts, like McCarthyism caused suffering for many without any proof or reason. Abigail proves an example of the consequences when power is given to things that cannot be proven, unsupported theories. How to cite The Crucible Character Analysis, Papers

Cost and Quality Management Plans Free-Samples for Students

Question: Discuss about the Cost and Quality Management Plans. Answer: Deliverable report: Quality cost allows a company to evaluate the extent to which the resources are used for the activities to maintain the quality of the services and products and to protect the cost that takes place due to external or internal failure. This assists the company in determination of the expected savings (Farooq et al., 2017). Quality costs are covered under this four categories: Prevention cost prevention costs are incurred to prevent a quality problem on the operation. This cost is less expensive as compared to the other quality costs and are therefore highly recommended. These costs include proper training of the employees regarding assembling of products or control of statistical process. This costs assists in reducing the scrap costs. Appraisal cost these costs are incurred to prevent a quality problem to take place. It is done through various inspection, for instance, the workers from production department inspect both the outgoing as well s incoming parts of their work place (Kaplan Atkinson, 2015). Internal failure costs this cost is incurred when there is production of defective product. These costs are incurred in the form of reworked goods or scrapped goods. The cost for reworking is included under the cost only. External failure cost this cost is incurred when there is production of a defective product and to rework the product much more costs have to be incurred now in form of warranty claims, legal costs, product recall or the field services. The costs involved are mostly unquantifiable costs that are the cost associated with loss of customers (Sarkar Moon, 2014). From the given case study of Polyproducts Incorporated, it is identified that they are the leading producer of the rubber components and 800 people are employed by them, those are organized through the matrix structure. In Exhibit I, the salary projection of the employees are shown, whereas, in Exhibit II, overhead projections for next two years are revealed. They received a proposal from the Capital Corporation. To analyse the viability of the proposal they will assess the marketplace to establish the fact that whether they will be able to get competitive advantages or not. This task will be carried out by marketing group. To analyse this, the marketing group will present the prospectus of four competitive companies. After comparing with four competitors, if the proposal looks viable and profitable, then only Polyproducts Incorporated will accept the proposals from Capital Corporation. Project Estimated Hours Developers Analysts Others Total Cost Status Phase Req. Avg. Cost Req. Avg. Cost Cost 1 Phase 1 8 3 $90 6 $90 $90 $2,250 1.1 Phase 1.1 8 1 $30 1 $30 $30 $510 1.2 Phase 1.2 8 1 $30 0 $30 $30 $270 1.3 Phase 1.3 8 1 $30 5 $30 $30 $1,470 2 Phase 2 8 13 $90 6 $90 $90 $4,650 2.1 Phase 2.1 8 1 $30 1 $30 $30 $510 2.2 Phase 2.2 8 5 $30 0 $30 $30 $1,230 2.3 Phase 2.3 8 7 $30 5 $30 $30 $2,910 3 Phase 3 8 7 $90 18 $150 $150 $6,150 3.1 Phase 3.1 8 2 $30 3 $30 $30 $1,230 3.2 Phase 3.2 8 2 $30 3 $30 $30 $1,230 3.3 Phase 3.3 8 1 $30 3 $30 $30 $990 3.4 Phase 3.4 8 1 $30 4 $30 $30 $1,230 3.5 Phase 3.5 8 1 $30 5 $30 $30 $1,470 Total 24 23 30 $330 $13,050 Work breakdown with cost breakdown structure Reference Farooq, M. A., Kirchain, R., Novoa, H., Araujo, A. (2017). Cost of Quality: Evaluating Cost-Quality Trade-Offs for Inspection Strategies of Manufacturing Processes.International Journal of Production Economics. Kaplan, R. S., Atkinson, A. A. (2015).Advanced management accounting. PHI Learning. Sarkar, B., Moon, I. (2014). Improved quality, setup cost reduction, and variable backorder costs in an imperfect production process.International journal of production economics,155, 204-213.

Of Mice and Men The Death of the American Dream free essay sample

The American Dream has always been one of the most prominent ideals in American society. Of Mice and Men was written by Steinbeck in 1937. It focuses on the lives of two men, Lennie and George, as they try to fulfill their own American Dream of owning a small farm. While this seems like an attainable dream in the beginning, Steinbeck chooses instead to destroy this dream utterly with the death of Lennie. Curley’s wife had an American Dream of being an actress, but she was condemned to a life on a farm with a man she doesn’t love. By destroying the American Dreams of Lennie, George, and Curley’s Wife in Of Mice and Men, prove Steinbeck believes that the American Dream is no longer an attainable goal. George and Lennie share an American Dream of owning a farm together. The audience learns of the dream when George tells Lennie about the farm: â€Å"Someday we’re gonna get the jack together and we’re gonna have a little house and a couple and some cows and some pigs- An’ live offa the lan† (15). We will write a custom essay sample on Of Mice and Men: The Death of the American Dream or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The farm they describe would appear to come out of a fairy tale. In this book, proves to be exactly what it is. After Lennie’s death George admits â€Å"-I think I knowed from the very first. I think I knowed we’d never do her. He usta like to hear it so much I got to thinking maybe we would† (93). In this story, Lennie believed in an American dream, and in many ways, he actually became a physical embodiment of the American Dream. As demonstrated by Lennie’s excitement and wholehearted belief that it would occur. He believed that he and George were different because they work together, exemplified in the text: â€Å"With us it ain’t like that. With us we got a future! †(15). Lennie and George possessed undying belief in the American Dream. However, through the death of Lennie, the dream of owning a farm died. This helps to prove that Lennie was a symbolic version of the American Dream. George also contains a symbolic meaning that can be associated with him. George’s embodiment is a representation of the faith the people place in the American dream. This can be proven both by the trust Lennie, who is symbolically the American Dream, places in George, and by the way Lennie needs George to succeed. When George kills Lennie at the end of the novel, Steinbeck symbolically shows that by leaving your American Dream to faith and hard work is no longer something that Americans can do. Curley’s wife also had an American dream that ended in failure. She has the dream of becoming a movie star. She said that she â€Å"coulda been a movie star and have nice clothes and all of that-† (90). She had a tragic story: a young girl with a talent for acting who is forced to live in isolation on a farm married to a man she doesn’t love. This is one of the most blatant allusions to the fact that the American dream is no longer achievable. Her story shows that opportunities are no longer easy to follow, and that society makes it difficult to succeed, especially for women. Steinbeck also supports this conclusion in his Nobel Prize Speech. When he speaks about the duties of authors he says, â€Å"He is charged with exposing our many grievous faults and failures, with dredging up to the light our dark and dangerous dreams for the purpose of improvement† (â€Å"Banquet Speech†). Steinbeck refers to his belief that the American Dream has become a corrupted ideal, and that it is his duty as an author to reveal that to the American public. The phrase â€Å"dark and dangerous dreams† is references that American Dream, which has changed from its originally pristine beliefs into something that has the possibility to destroy. The character of Curley’s Wife is used by Steinbeck to illustrate his point that the American Dream has been corrupted. Throughout the book, Steinbeck uses characters with small roles to help point out his beliefs. He often uses these characters to illustrate his belief in the uncertainty of the American Dream. For example, Slim talks about how he â€Å"ain’t neven seen two guys traveling together before. I don’t know why, maybe everybody in the whole damn world’s just scared of each other† (34). In this passage Steinbeck uses Slim to comment on how two guys traveling together is strange. The reason he gives is that people in the world are scared of each other. This can be related back to the American Dream. For a dream to succeed, you need help. The reason no one’s American Dreams are succeeding is because they don’t receive help from each other. Curley’s Wife never got help to fulfill her dream, so it never succeeded. Steinbeck echoes this sentiment in a part of his Nobel Prize speech, â€Å"Humanity has been passing through a gray and desolate time of confusion† (â€Å"Banquet Speech†). From this quote, Steinbeck is saying that he believes that we are passing through a time without the ability to fulfill dreams. Gray and desolate implies that there are no dreams that exist. Another time a minor character shows Steinbeck’s beliefs about the American Dream is when Crooks and Lennie talk about the farm where Lennie wants to live on with George. Crooks says, â€Å"you’re nuts. I’ve seen hundreds of men come by on the roads an’ on the ranches with their bindles on their backs an’ the same damn thing in their heads† (72). In that line, Steinbeck basically condenses all of his beliefs into one phrase. He states that the American Dream is just a dream, and that those who believe otherwise are deluding themselves. The American Dream began as a simple belief that those on the bottom of society had the potential to move up and become something better. In the book Of Mice and Men, Steinbeck shows that this is no longer the case. He represents this symbolically through Lennie and George’s relationship and outcome. He also proves this with character of Curley’s Wife, by showing that the American dream is hard to gain, even with opportunity, and especially if you don’t have support. Finally, he uses his background characters to make his point with small phrases that warn the characters and the readers of the dangers of the American Dream. By extinguishing Lennie, George’s, and Curley’s Wife’s American Dream, as well as using the sentiment of the minor characters when these dreams are discussed, have shown that Steinbeck believes that the American Dream is no longer an achievable goal in American society.

Characterisation of Holden Caulfield in the Catcher Essays

Characterisation of Holden Caulfield in the Catcher Essays Characterisation of Holden Caulfield in the Catcher Paper Characterisation of Holden Caulfield in the Catcher Paper Slinger uses effective characterization to explore how Holder finds growing up painful and difficult. Holder is frightened of maturing because he has convinced himself that the adult world is corrupt, and that all the adults are phony, hypocritical and false. He has made this generalization to detach himself from adults, to resist entry to the society that they belong to. Holders actions contradict what he believes as he is a compulsive liar; l have this tiny tumor on the brain. Holder is not shy to lie to people around him. He lies to Mrs. Morrow the woman he meets on the rain after leaving school -because he does not like interacting with new people or opening up to them, in case they are phony. Holder cannot reach full maturity because he ignores advice of his elders, like Mrs. Morrow, as he does not want guidance in his Journey to adulthood he does not want to become what society wants him to become, so he remains a child. Holders own physique is telling him to change and to mature into adulthood despite what he believes, Im six-foot-etc:and- a-half and I have grey hair. His body appears to be maturing, but his mind lacks this placement and remains child-like. Slinger uses this contrast of his emotions with his physical appearance to imply that his body is telling him to grow up, but his mind is resisting, in order to stay innocent and pure for as long as possible. Slinger even uses his name to show his youthfulness , Holder Coalfield can be broken up Into Hold-on as if he is not ready to grow up, and that it is too difficult for him to handle. And Call is apart of the amnion, which protects the babys head during birth, this relates to Holder as he Is metaphorically protected by this and does not mature as a result.

To persuade People to refrain from taking Diet Pills Essay

To persuade People to refrain from taking Diet Pills - Essay Example It's very important to study this matter for it will make clear to us the real thing about diet pills. The problem is the rate of people who uses diet pills and those who sell such pills are getting higher. The result of this study will surely change our point of view regarding diet pills. The people will surely will benefit, all in the whole society. In the principle of Ecology there is a saying that everything is connected to everything else. So what's the relation of this As we take diet pills we tend to limit our choices and wants to eat. The pills limited the wants of your stomach. And you really have to maintain your diet. When you take diet pills you will not feel hungry every time. But we don't have notice that some part of the body, or one of the body organs are affected by that pills, such as the sensitive one, the liver which is the screener of all, will be affected. But why is this problem not have been solved, actually there are barriers like the legal barriers for they tend to explain that diet pills had come for solving the problem in the society. There are some good results from taking it. And the cant stop the production for it really helps the people's needs. There are also the attitudinal barriers in which the people keeps on consuming and buying diet pills, their attitude and the willing ness to buy the product tends the hardship to stop them becomes worse. There is also a political barrier in which some of the politicians in authority holds or protect those producers, for they will receive a payment from them. There is also an economical barrier, since the people's attitude cannot be stopped by time they continue buying the pills and so consuming these pills helps the economy, so the economic sectors are afraid to stop the production of diet pills for it helps the economic progression. Solving the problem from the start will be hard to do, but there are solutions to solve this. Education is the solution. Why not educate the people about the bad aspects of taking diet pills. We should make them believe that pills can give them another problem; the willingness to be thin is dangerous. Why not publish some ads on the newspaper, conduct seminars, and even teach those in schools. To solve the issue its very intelligent to start from the roots, we should stop those who buys, and so it will make a bankrupt thing to the producers because nobody or the consuming rate decreases the will tend to stop negotiating the product. Let us dissolve the pills, why not take advantage of the oatmeal, and make the production of fruit and vegetables increase, make them have a vegetarian living, more on fibers and exercises. There is a lot of solutions and not the diet pills. Let us take the natural thing. Not of any synthetic thing around us. God gave us everything. No pills. Let's discipline ourselves, and have the balanced diet. Let us remember that we should value health. No need to have the synthetic solutions to become beautiful. We should go for the

Week 6 post class 6340 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Week 6 post class 6340 - Assignment Example This is so because there are many volunteers in many health care departments but not many really carry out the roles of teaching like a nurse who is a service learner that is really noble of you (Groh, Stallwood and Daniels, 2011). I had really not thought about the role technology plays in higher education and especially having more people take up nursing degrees because higher education learning will be easier than it is currently and more than it was in the past. Thank you for such insight and I totally agree with it and especially if nursing shortage is to have a permanent solution (Zarate and Burciaga, 2010). Your current work position of being a director of education is the best position to advocate for specialty certification for nurses because you have not only the capability but also power to motivate, challenge and teach about the professionalism that accompanies having a certificate and it will also open up future job opportunities and trust from prospective employers (National League for Nursing, 2009). American Association of College Nurses, (2013). Defining Scholarship for the Discipline of Nursing. Retrieved on February 10, 2013 from:

Economics for Public Policy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Economics for Public Policy - Essay Example In this case, the two firms would benefit from a reduction in the advertisement. In this regard, the legal system is the legal advertisement by the two companies. The anarchy is a situation where both the two firms fail to take part in advertisement. This situation would be beneficial for both the two firms. On the other hand, if Firm B fails to advertise where as Firm A advertise, the advertisement would significantly benefit Firm A. However, the maximum level of advertisement by a single firm is depended on the degree of advertisement undertaken by the other firm (Axelrod, 2004). This means that there is an equal outcome whenever different companies pursue advertisement to a level below the equilibrium. This principle can be applied to different areas such as rational environments. It explains why the presidential candidates in two different parties are actually similar. Whenever the candidates are confirmed in the preliminaries, they would be created inside their camps of partisan . The electorate who are undecided would be categorised in the central political spectrum. The candidates may tend to rash to the middle group so as to appeal to the group. In this case, the assumption is that voters would select the close option thus many votes could be acquired whenever one is in the center. Part b. The benefits of welfare are an efficiency-enhancing insurance scheme, which may insure against incoming risks. Those individuals who hold the illustrations of the prisoner's dilemma believe that the game highlights morality in challenges that are faced by large groups or welfare. Similar to the game of two players, the game with many players pays the cooperating players R, and defecting players P. In welfare, when some individual defect while some cooperate the cooperating players would get an S while the defecting players will get a T. A good example is illustrated in the commons tragedy. All The members of a certain welfare prefer to graze their animals on the common s instead of maintaining the animals on his own land (Axelrod and William, 2006). The common resource will become unsuitable for grazing whenever it is used by a number above the threshold. In this case, there is a derived benefit B that each welfare member can achieve whenever he or she pays a cost C sufficiently. Above n choose C Below n choose C C C+ B C D B 0 Above n choose C Below n choose C C C+ B C D B 0 From the table, there is an assumption that cost C is negative. The dilemma in this case, is to obtain a benefit with no cost incurred. In a situation, that is ideal the benefit is always a be given reward together with the cost. The challenging situation is to incur a cost but no benefit. This means that a payoff is ordered as B>(B+C)>0>C. In this respect, whenever one chooses C he obtains C+B hence the benefits of welfare are an efficiency-enhancing insurance scheme. Response to question 2. Part a. The two categories of voters will include the rich the middle and the poor p ersons. R M P Gross income $13 $4 $3 Willingness to pay $4.5 $1.5 $0.5 . This cannot be said to be a pay off matrix since all the willingness to pay, being penalties needs to be identified as negative numbers. T= [] If we add $4 to each element we get T= ] T=] The first step involves checking for saddle points (Bendor, 2007). This is a point where the unstable and stable manifold has a dimension that fails to be a zero (Axelrod, 2007). In a matrix, it

Examining Related-Party Transactions And Corporate Fraud

Examining Related-Party Transactions And Corporate Fraud Related parties represent a link where one party can exercise control (direct or indirect) or significant influence over the operating policies of the other party. According to FRS 8 and IAS 24, a related party includes an entitys subsidiaries, associates, joint venture interests, directors and family members of  directors. Related-party transactions are legitimate activities and serve practical purposes such as: They are recognised in corporate and taxation laws. They have their own standards for accounting treatment. Systems of checks and balances have been built around them to make sure they are conducted within these boundaries. The following parties are not considered as related parties in IAS 24: Parties which have normal dealing with an entity. Examples include providers of finance, trade unions, government agencies and public utilities. Parties such as customers, suppliers, distributors and franchisors on which the entity is economically dependent. Two venturers sharing joint control over a joint venture. Two entities having a common directors or other member of key management personnel are not considered as related parties. Related Party Transactions Related party transactions (RPTs) are defined in IAS 24 as any transactions made between the related parties irrespective of whether a price is charged or not. The transactions include transfer of resources, services or obligations. In other words, RPTs are transactions between a company and its management, board members, principal owners, or members of the immediate families of any of these groups. Examples of RPTs under IASB include rendering or receiving of services, purchase or sales of goods, leases, provisions of guarantees or collateral, purchase or sale of property and other assets, among others. Moreover, FASB (1982) states that RPTs include transactions between a company and its affiliates. Affiliates refer to entities which control the company, they are controlled by the company or they are controlled by another entity which also controls the company. Examples of RPTs under FASB include services received or furnished, borrowings and lendings, guarantees among others. Scenarios under related party transactions When an individual purchases a stock, bond, note or mutual fund from a family member or related party entity, he becomes entitled to the related party rules and under these rules, the individuals cost basis will actually depend on whether he ends up selling it at a gain or a loss. For example, the individuals sister owned stock of XYZ Corp which she bought for $20,000.   It had declined in value to $10,000 when he bought it from her.  Ã‚   Therefore, she is  not allowed to claim a  capital loss when she sells it to him because he is a related party. Gain scenario: If later the individual sells the stock to a  third, unrelated party  for $22,000, he will experience a true gain of $12,000 on his own acquisition cost of $10,000. However, he only have to declare  a capital gain of $2,000 for  income tax purposes because  he is allowed to use a carryover basis from his sister, since she was not able to claim the previous  disallowed loss.  Ã‚   Loss scenario: If the individual sells it later to a  third, unrelated party  for $8,000, he will have a true loss of $2,000 on his own acquisition cost of $10,000,  and he can only declare  a capital  loss of $2,000 for  income tax purposes.   However, he is not allowed to use a carryover basis from his sister, even though she was not able to claim the previous  disallowed loss. The tax savings from the previous disallowed capital loss are wasted and no one claimed them. Disclosure The objective of IAS 24 is to ensure that an entitys financial statements contain the disclosures necessary to draw attention to the possibility that its financial position and profit or loss may have been affected by the existence of related parties and by transactions and outstanding balances with such parties. The IAS 28 requires the following to be disclosed: Relationship between parents and subsidiaries: The entity should disclose the name of its parent company or of its ultimate controlling party irrespective of whether there have been any transactions occurred between them. In the case where neither the parent company nor the ultimate controlling company produces financial statement for public use, then the next most senior parent that does so must also be disclosed. Management Compensation: The compensation of the key management personnel must be disclosed in total and for each of the following categories: Short-term employment benefits Post-employment benefits Other longer benefits Termination benefits, and Equity Compensation benefits. Related Party Transaction: If transactions have been made between the related party, then for each categories of the related party, the following should be disclosed separately: The amount of the transactions The amount of the outstanding balances including terms and conditions and guarantees Provisions for doubtful debts related to the amount of outstanding balances Expenses recognised during the period in respect of bad or doubtful debts due from related parties. Types of RPT that lead to corporate frauds Many high profile companies have made an abuse use of related party transactions to succeed in involving in fraudulent activities. These include companies such as Enron, Adelphia, Tyco and others. Sales to ( or purchases from) related parties of goods and services According to Pesaru (2002), a related-party sales transaction represents the link between the company and the customer. In this particular transaction, it is usually difficult to identify the related parties. Thus, companies use this technique for boosting revenue. As such, the undisclosed related-party transactions may be used to fraudulently inflate earnings. Companies use accounting trick to mislead the users of financial statements. Presenting a series of sales, which are executed with an undisclosed related-party and which are insignificant is an example of accounting trick used by companies. Moreover, sales made to related party transactions can also lead to corporate frauds if the sales transactions are categorized under fictitious sales. Fictitious sales include round-trip sales. SEC 2003 defines round trip sales as simultaneous pre-arranged sales transactions often of the same product in order to create a false impression of justifying those fictitious sales transactions of falling under the normal ordinary course of the business. This type of transactions inflates sales figures and thus leads to overstatement of revenues. On the other hand, the purchase of goods or services from related parties is another type of RPT. This type of RPT may lead to fraud when the purchases are not disclosed or when they are considered as unauthorised transactions. Companies create fictitious purchases of services from related party to conceal a misappropriation. For instance, in the Tyco case, it was found that the company failed to disclose a finders fee paid to an outside director in connection with an acquisition. Besides, one of the principal owners of PNF Industries, Inc. created fictitious records to conceal a misappropriation by claiming that he was owed consultation fees. Since the payments were considered as unauthorised, he falsified a minutes of a directors meeting to authorize the fees. Non-reported purchases from a related party understate expenses and the effect of the understated figure of expenses is reflected in an overstated sales figure. On the contrary, non-reported revenues and fictitious purchases lead to understatement of income. This whole scenario is summarised in the following diagram. First scenario: Effect: FICTITIOUS SALES OVERSTATEMENT OF REVENUES SMOOTHING INCOME NON-REPORTED PURCHASES Second scenario: NON-REPORTED REVENUE FICTITIOUS PURCHASES UNDERSTATEMENT OF INCOME Genuine sales can be made to the related party in such a way that this transaction transfer wealth to the related party. This can be done if genuine sales are made below its market price to the related party. Another way of transferring wealth to the related party would be unnecessary purchases of goods and services or even purchases above its market price by the company. The other side of the coin will be transferring wealth from the related parties to the company. This is possible when actual sales are transacted to related party at above market prices or when purchases are made below market prices from the related party. The situation of genuine sales being transacted in a manipulating way can have two impacts: Firstly, if the company is already facing a crisis in terms of low profits for instance, then the latter can opt for transferring wealth from the related party to itself. And, if the company is transferring its wealth to the related party, this will lead to misappropriation of companys assets. Both of these impacts will lead to fraudulent financial reporting. To better understand the picture, a diagram is illustrated below: Scenario of sales: GENUINE SALES Made to related parties under market prices Made to the company over market prices LEADS TO TRANSFER OF WEALTH To the company To related parties Scenario of Purchases: PURHASES MADE TO Related parties over market prices The company from related parties under market prices LEADS TO TRANSFER OF WEALTH To the company An example of a company which uses this to involve in fraudulent activity is Livent Inc., Humatech Inc. and Enron. Livent Inc has mischaracterised certain receipts as revenue. In fact, the receipts were actually borrowings since there were side agreements obligating the company to repay the funds. The counterparty companies were related parties since the top executive of Livent Inc were a member of their boards. In the case of Humatech Inc, the CEO and the CFO secretly controlled the improper recognition of revenue which was actually sale to a foreign distributor. Indeed, the foreign distributor was a related party but however no disclosure has been made of the transactions. Furthermore, Enron has made a payment to one of its employees of around $ 10 million and the CFO took it as a SPE. The employee then via a payment to the CFOs family members, share a portion of its fees to the CFO. Loans to and from the related parties The provision of loan to and from the related parties is another major type of RPT. Lack of transparency involved in recording the following transactions outlined below of a company leads to understatement of its liabilities: Non- recognition of borrowings by the company to the related parties Non-disclosure of obligations incurred for the related parties in terms of guarantee Disclosure of loan transactions to related parties If loans are given to the related parties by the entity are reported accordingly in the financial records of that firm, the issue that arises is in terms of the collateral which is used as a medium to get the finance. In fact, what usually happens is that in case of related party transactions companies tend to overstate the value of these collaterals. Manipulating interest rates Wealth are transferred to related party by either borrowing from a related party at above-market interest rates, or lending to a related party at below-market interest rates. If the related parties borrow from the company at an interest rate which is above the market interest rate, this leads to a transfer of wealth to the company. Similarly, if the company is financed out by the related parties at below-market rates or off-market, this would again leads to a transfer of wealth from the related parties to the company. According to Freidman et al. (2003), this kind of practice is referred to as propping. On the other hand, if the company lends the related parties at an interest rate which is lower or even off the market interest rate, this will lead to a transfer of wealth from the company to the related parties. The scenario of manipulating interest rate can be easily understood through the diagram below: Scenario: transfer of wealth to the company: COMPANY Borrows from the related parties at a lower market interest rate Lends to related parties at a higher market interest rate Leads to transfer of wealth to the company If borrowings from a related party are not recognised, this will result in an understatement of liabilities. Moreover, over-estimating the collectability of loans to a related party leads to an overvaluation of assets. These situations are known as loan related misstatements and this may eventually leads to frauds. Several companies adopted this technique when preparing their financial statements. For example, Adelphia understated its liabilities by $1.6 billion. It failed to report its obligation under the credit facility by claiming that its obligation was merely a guarantee which did not require disclosure. In addition to this, Adelphia has netted $ 1.351 billion related party receivables with against related party payables, which has enable them to hide $ 1.348 billion of related party payables. The netting has also allowed them to hide the amount of transactions between the Adelphia and the company owned by Rigas family which was Adelphias controlling shareholders and management team. Indeed, the SEC has stated that the Rigas family has illegally excluded over $2.3 billion in bank debt by deliberately shifting those liabilities onto the books of Adelphias off balance sheet, unconsolidated affiliates and created sham transactions backed by fictitious documents to give the false appearance that Adelphia had actually repaid debts when, in truth, it had simply shifted them to unconsolidated Rigas-controlled entities. Moreover, PrintontheNet.com did not disclose that it had guaranteed $7.3 million in related parties loans. In the case of Tyco, Mr Kozlowski, who was the former Chief Executive Officer of Tyco International borrowed $ 242 Million from a Tyco program, with the intension to facilitate the executives to pay taxes on restricted-stock grants. However, instead of utilising the funds for that purpose, he spent the finances on yachts, fine art, estate jewelry and luxury apartments. In the same way, Mr Swartz, Tycos former Chief Financial Officer took a lo an of $72 Million from program and made personal investment and business ventures with that money. In the Enron case, Mahonia, a special purpose entity (SPE) which was controlled by a financial institution was employed to make some of the Enrons transactions disguised a borrowing of $ 2.6 billion from the financial institution as forwards contract. Hence, as a result of the disguised loans, cash flowed from the financial institution to Mahonia and then from Mahonia to Enron. Investment in related parties It is crucial to disclose investments in related parties in order to prevent frauds from occurring. Managers tend to manipulate earnings via tunneling actions in order to maintain the companys stock performance. As a result, investment decisions would be expropriated if such decisions are determined based on the financial disclosure. If investment in the equity of a related party is not reported correctly, this will lead to an overstatement of assets and hence will mislead investors about insider activity. Several companies had inflated their assets with RPTs. For example, an investment of $2.5 million in a venture capital fund by Hollinger was not disclosed. Moreover, in the Enron case, using the special purpose entities (SPEs) the managers was able to hide unfavourable performance of their investment decisions. Tonka is another example of a company which involve in fraudulent activities. The CFO of the company secretly owned a company and he misappropriate assets of Tonka by making the corporate funds to be improperly been invested in his company. Hence, it can be seen that many companies has misused related party transaction to involve in fraudulent activities. However, the Sarbanes Oxley Act 2002 has prohibited only one type of related party transaction which was loans to related parties. Indeed, in a study by Henri et al. (2007) which examined 83 SEC enforcement actions involving in related party transaction and fraud, it was found that the most frequent type of related party transaction was loan to related party. RPT: A cause for concern Many accounting frauds such as Enron, Adelphia, Tyco, Refco, Hollinger, Rite Aid have occurred during the past years and have shown concern towards related party transactions. This is because in one way or the other, related party transactions were involved, creating concern among regulators and other market participants about the appropriate monitoring and auditing of these transactions. However it has been pointed out that research has provided a mixed picture of the role of related party transactions in fraudulent financial reporting. For example, research has shown that related party transaction disclosures are quite common (Gordon et al. 2004a; Wall Street Journal 2003). However, since fraudulent financial reporting is relatively uncommon (Lev 2003), and furthermore most frauds2 apparently do not involve related party transactions (Shapiro 1984; Bonner et al. 1988; SEC 2003), it is reasonable to assume that most disclosed related party transactions are not fraudulent. According to Gordon et al. (2004), RPTs play a fundamental role in a firms corporate governance environment. It is said that RPTs are an aspect of corporate governance because these transactions are complex issues between a company and its managers, directors, subsidiaries and major shareholders. RPT is considered as an issue to corporate governance because of the problems of asymmetric information between the firms manager and external capital markets. Additionally, RPTs result in higher agency costs. This is due to the alignment of decision-making and monitoring rights. Moreover, according to Johnstone and Bedard (2004), RPTs are difficult to audit and these transactions represent a potential audit risk. When examining the financial statements of companies, auditors do not have adequate information on related party. Is it fair to blame only bad corporate governance for corporate failures? Bad corporate governance is one of the reasons which account for the corporate failures. Corporate governance issues, like those with related party transactions, crop up because of the existence of asymmetric information between shareholders and the firms managers. Existing research has shown that certain board characteristics and CEO pay-performance sensitivity are useful governance mechanisms which help to improve managerial agency problems. For example, large board size, which is observable and disclosed in proxy statements, has been found to be negatively correlated with firm value and interpreted as indicative of weak corporate governance (Yermack, 1996). However, this does not conclude that corporate failures arise only because of bad corporate governance. There are multitude reasons behind the corporate scandal. For instance, it has been seen that a lack of regulations is one of the reasons. It is believed that the erosion of accounting practices begun in the 1980s as firms tried to balance strict standards with a desire to please clients and increase consulting business. Research has shown that a lack of government regulation was one of the major causes of the huge energy trading firm Enron. This firm reported profits of hundreds of millions of dollars ($979 million in 2000, alone) before collapsing in 2001. Other examples include poor management structures, lack of independence and objectivity by auditors as well as poor business ethics. Ethics can be defined as moral philosophy. It is basically the discipline concerned with what is morally good and bad, right and wrong. The term is also applied to any system or theory of moral values or principles (Ethics, Encyclopedia Britannica Online, 2000). However, when this term is applied in the business context, it is said to be the study and evaluation of decision making by businesses according to moral concepts and judgments (Business Ethics, The Columbia Encyclopedia, 2007). For instance, in the Enron case, the auditors applied reckless standards to do their audit because they were receiving significant consultation fees from the company.

Dorothy Day, Saint-Worthy? Essay -- essays research papers

Dorothy Day, Saint-Worthy? Almost immediately after her death in 1980 controversy arose about whether Dorothy Day should be canonized a Saint by the Church. Now that the Vatican has approved the late Cardinal John O'Connor's request to consider Dorothy Day's "cause," the controversy is being rekindled. After converting, she dedicated her life to New York's poor and immigrants, building hospitality homes that operated much like homeless shelters. Her endeavor grew into the national Catholic Worker movement, a social justice crusade conducted in revolutionary tones new to the church. When she died, a multitude came down to the old dwelling off the Bowery to pay their respects, the way people had come to Catholic Worker houses for soup. There were Catholic Workers, social workers, migrant workers, the unemployed; addicts, alcoholics, anarchists; Protestants, Jews and agnostics; the devout and the strident and the curious, there to see what a saint looked like. Dorothy Day died in 1980, at the age of 83. She was one of the greatest religious figures of the century, and one of the most paradoxical. She was a Catholic and she was an anarchist. She condemned poverty and she advocated it. She founded the Catholic Worker, a loose aggregation of 'houses of hospitality,' communal farms, newspapers and round-table discussions for 'further clarification of thought' - and called her memoirs 'The Long Loneliness.' The movement was wary of authority, yet revered her as its leader (Rosin). If Dorothy Day is ever canonized, the record of who she was, what she was like and what she did is too complete and accessible for her to be hidden. She will be the patron saint not only of the homeless and those who try to care for them but also of people who lose their temper. One of the miracles of Dorothy's life is that she remained part of a conflict-torn community for nearly a half a century. Still more remarkable, she remained a person of hope and gratitude to the end. Many voices are in support of the canonization process as well, citing Dorothy Day's life as an example that has inspired them to prayer and action for social justice. Her faithfulness to the Gospel, living the "preferential option for the poor" and showing that a lay person can achieve heroic virtue are oft... ...in your entire life." To a college student who asked a sarcastic question about her recipe for soup, she responded, "You cut the vegetables until your fingers bleed." To a journalist who told her it was the first time he had interviewed a saint, she replied, "Don't call me a saint -- I don't want to be dismissed that easily (Forest)." Even though she may not have wanted it, I do think that her cause should go all the way. She is a wonderful example of living the gospel message and an inspiration to regular men and women. She knew what it was to suffer for her beliefs. She was converted and reconciled. She saw Jesus in the faces of all whom she met and served. What better example of sainthood could there possibly be. Forest, Jim. Dorothy Day, Saint and Troublemaker. Guadalupe, Casa Maria October 10, 1997 Anonymous. Dorothy Day, Servant of God http://www.catholicworker.org/dorothyday/canonization.cfm Rosin, Hannah. Honoring Dorothy Day: The Dead Don’t Ever Own the Dead. The Washington Post. March 17, 2000

How to Manage Negativity within the Medical Aesthetics

The vital challenge for managing negative employees nowadays is to stay alive and flourish in a very chaotic globe. To achieve this, the Medical Aesthetics Market Place perceives it essential to keep positive attitudes of its organization. Ethical values, constantly applied, are the foundation in building a commercially victorious and generally responsible business (Barbuceanu & Fox, 1996).   Business organizations progress trust and a positive outlook between its personnel strengthen ethical framework and proffer a moral breadth during times of change and in catastrophe (Grimes & Alley, 1997).Medica Spa owners require positive-productive employees to gain encouraging impact on their clienteles. For this objective, owners and managers endow with greater control over one's manners, build assurance in decision making, and consent to more truthful discernments of one's self. Those issues concern justice, honesty, correctness and an optimistic attitude; as a consequence it can only be resolved according to ethical standards.Decision-making must be empowered to the level adjoining the field of action, on condition that, that this level has compulsory for positive reception from its employees at its clearance (Guest, 1989). A manager is required to make his function wider to increase dynamism, inventiveness and speed of achievement (Barenberg, 1994).Employees in the Medical Aesthetics Market Place are in fact obliged to comply with significantly increased demands in quantity and quality. The movement in the present day is to hire less than sufficient staff and work to the maximum.   Negativity should be restricted to any level of an employee. Operations individuals at present have more duties and must generate more (Ghallab, 1994).Owners are required to entrust a part of its sanctions to the subordinate hierarchical levels, if they do not want to be congested with more and more abundant and multifaceted problems. Delegation is mainly about entrusting an ownerâ₠¬â„¢s authority to others. This denotes that they can take action and begin autonomously; and that they presume duty with owners for tasks. Entrustment underpins a technique of management which allows the staff to exercise and widen their skills and knowledge to full potential (Guest, 1989). To manage negativity of employees, owners must:distribute adequate resources to board activities such as time, money, and facilitiessupport workers and supervisors to collaborate with the committee and be involvedentail the committee in each and every health and safety activitiesfacilitate to schedule committee activities such as investigations as well as inspectionsdivide health and safety matters from concerns not relatedwork and take steps safely and guarantee that supervisors work and take action carefullyTo manage negative employees, managers must be straightforward to the staff to assume their responsibilities, as every now and then it is very at ease to feel oneself protected from all ris ks that are inherent in running an organization’s operations; a desire from the managers must exist to abandon certain prerogatives – for it is a loss of authority – to be able to concentrate on other more significant activities; must be capable of setting up a career promotion and rewards that recompense the efforts of the staff that stimulate them and motivate their activity for the benefit of the group (Ghallab, 1994).   The staff must have enough knowledge on how to do their responsibilities with dedication and positive attitude. Thus, the business owners ought to facilitate access to the required understanding.The owner who fears and cannot organize well will never manage negativity of employees successfully; the manager, who is acquainted with that the staff may possibly have supplementary experience and knowledge, and so may possibly develop the decision-making process, will receive their participation; managing negativity of employees guarantees that t he staff will put decision-making into practice within the organization of their objectives and will sense that their perspectives are welcome. One of the main irrational fears about delegation is that by providing others authority, an owner or manager loses power (Grimes & Alley, 1997). This must not be the case.If the owner trains the staff to take actions the same criteria as the manager would, by example and explanations, then the staff will be exercising the manager’s control on his/her behalf with positive outlook if and only if the manager demonstrates a positive attitude. And since they will distinguish many more circumstances over which control may be put into effect, then control will be exercised more rapidly and more diversely than an owner could put it into effect by his/her self.An owner must be able to distribute the more mundane tasks as equally as possible; and add the more stimulating once as broadly. Generally, but particularly with the tedious tasks, an ow ner must be careful to delegate not only the performance of the mission but also its tenure (Barenberg, 1994). Task handing over, more willingly than task assignment, allows innovation and positive attitude and outlook in their work.To manage negativity within a business,   an owner is supposed to increase progressively; first, a small assignment leading to a little improvement, then another assignment which constructs upon the first; when that is accomplished, add an additional step; and so on. This is the differentiation between asking people to balance a sheer wall (negative), and offering them with a flight of steps (positive).When an owner delegates a job, it does not have to be finished as fit as an owner could do it in a given time, but only as fit as needed: never judge the upshot by what is expected (it is complicated to be objective – negative), but by fitness for positive function. When an owner delegates a task, he/she must agree upon the standards by which the result will be reviewed. An owner must not exaggerate a negative issue; if the staff did something wrong, the owner must have the skill of using specific and positive terms in correcting the mistake – not meaning to hurt the staff’s feelings (Barbuceanu & Fox, 1996).ReferencesBarbuceanu, M. & Fox, M. (1996). The Design of a Coordination Language for Multi-AgentsSystems. In Intelligent Agents III. Agent Theories, Architectures, and Languages.Springer, pp.341-355.Barenberg, M. (1994). Democracy and Domination in the Law of Workplace Cooperation:From Bureaucratic to Flexible Production, 94 Colum. L. Rev. 753, 825–78. Harper,supra note 468, at 113–14.Ghallab, M. (1994). Past and future chronicles for supervision and planning. In Jean  PaulHaton, editor, Proceedings of the 14th Int. Avignon Conference, Paris, EC2 and AFIA,pp23-34.Grimes, G. & Alley, B. (1997). Intelligent Agents for Network Fault Diagnosis and Testing.In Integrated Network Management V: inte grated management in a virtual world. SanDiego, California, USA, May 1997. IFIP, Chapman & Hall, pp.232-244.Guest, D. (1989). Personnel and HRM: Can you tell the difference? Personnel Management.St. Paul, MN: West Publishing, pp23-27.

The Persian Empire of Ancient Iran

The Persian Empire of Ancient Iran Irans history as a nation of people speaking an Indo-European language did not begin until the middle of the second millennium B.C. Before then, Iran was occupied by peoples with a variety of cultures. There are numerous artifacts attesting to settled agriculture, permanent sun-dried- brick dwellings, and pottery-making from the sixth millennium B.C. The most advanced area technologically was ancient Susiana, present-day Khuzestan Province. By the fourth millennium, the inhabitants of Susiana, the Elamites, were using semipictographic writing, probably learned from the highly advanced civilization of Sumer in Mesopotamia (ancient name for much of the area now known as Iraq), to the west. Sumerian influence in art, literature, and religion also became particularly strong when the Elamites were occupied by, or at least came under the domination of, two Mesopotamian cultures, those of Akkad and Ur, during the middle of the third millennium. By 2000 B.C. the Elamites had become sufficiently unified to destroy the city of Ur. Elamite civilization developed rapidly from that point, and, by the fourteenth century B.C., its art was at its most impressive. Immigration of the Medes and the Persians Small groups of nomadic, horse-riding peoples speaking Indo-European languages began moving into the Iranian cultural area from Central Asia near the end of the second millennium B.C. Population pressures, overgrazing in their home area, and hostile neighbors may have prompted these migrations. Some of the groups settled in eastern Iran, but others, those who were to leave significant historical records, pushed farther west toward the Zagros Mountains. Three major groups are identifiablethe Scythians, the Medes (the Amadai or Mada), and the Persians (also known as the Parsua or Parsa). The Scythians established themselves in the northern Zagros Mountains and clung to a seminomadic existence in which raiding was the chief form of economic enterprise. The Medes settled over a huge area, reaching as far as modern Tabriz in the north and Esfahan in the south. They had their capital at Ecbatana (present-day Hamadan) and annually paid tribute to the Assyrians. The Persians were established in three areas: to the south of Lake Urmia (the tradional name, also cited as Lake Orumiyeh, to which it has reverted after being called Lake Rezaiyeh under the Pahlavis), on the northern border of the kingdom of the Elamites; and in the environs of modern Shiraz, which would be their eventual settling place and to which they would give the name Parsa (what is roughly present-day Fars Province). During the seventh century B.C., the Persians were led by Hakamanish (Achaemenes, in Greek), ancestor of the Achaemenid dynasty. A descendant, Cyrus II (also known as Cyrus the Great or Cyrus the Elder), led the combined forces of the Medes and the Persians to establish the most extensive empire known in the ancient world. By 546 B.C., Cyrus had defeated Croesus*, the Lydian king of fabled wealth, and had secured control of the Aegean coast of Asia Minor, Armenia, and the  Greek colonies  along the Levant. Moving east, he took Parthia (land of the Arsacids, not to be confused with Parsa, which was to the southwest), Chorasmis, and Bactria. He besieged and captured Babylon in 539 and released the Jews who had been held captive there, thus earning his immortalization in the Book of Isaiah. When he died in 529**, Cyruss kingdom extended as far east as the Hindu Kush in present-day Afghanistan. His successors were less successful. Cyruss unstable son, Cambyses II, conquered Egypt but later committed suicide during a revolt led by a priest, Gaumata, who usurped the throne until overthrown in 522 by a member of a lateral branch of the Achaemenid family, Darius I (also known as Darayarahush or Darius the Great). Darius attacked the Greek mainland, which had supported rebellious Greek colonies under his aegis, but as a result of his defeat at the  Battle of Marathon in 490  was forced to retract the limits of the empire to  Asia Minor. The Achaemenids thereafter consolidated areas firmly under their control. It was Cyrus and Darius who, by sound and farsighted administrative planning, brilliant military maneuvering, and a humanistic worldview, established the greatness of the Achaemenids and in less than thirty years raised them from an obscure tribe to a world power. The quality of the Achaemenids as rulers began to disintegrate, however, after the death of Darius in 486. His son and successor, Xerxes, was chiefly occupied with suppressing revolts in Egypt and Babylonia. He also attempted to conquer the Greek Peloponnesus, but encouraged by a victory at Thermopylae, he overextended his forces and suffered overwhelming defeats at Salamis and Plataea. By the time his successor, Artaxerxes I, died in 424, the imperial court was beset by factionalism among the lateral family branches, a condition that persisted until the death in 330 of the last of the Achaemenids, Darius III, at the hands of his own subjects. The Achaemenids were enlightened despots who allowed a certain amount of regional autonomy in the form of the satrapy system. A satrapy was an administrative unit, usually organized on a geographical basis. A satrap (governor) administered the region, a general supervised military recruitment and ensured order, and a state secretary kept official records. The general and the state secretary reported directly to the central government. The twenty satrapies were linked by a 2,500-kilometer highway, the most impressive stretch being the  royal road  from Susa to Sardis, built by command of Darius. Relays of mounted couriers could reach the most remote areas in fifteen days. Despite the relative local independence afforded by the satrapy system, however, royal inspectors, the eyes and ears of the king, toured the empire and reported on local conditions, and the king maintained a personal bodyguard of 10,000 men, called the Immortals. The language in greatest use in the empire was Aramaic. Old Persian was the official language of the empire but was used only for inscriptions and royal proclamations. Darius revolutionized the economy by placing it on a silver and gold coinage system. Trade was extensive, and under the  Achaemenids  there was an efficient infrastructure that facilitated the exchange of commodities among the far reaches of the empire. As a result of this commercial activity, Persian words for typical items of trade became prevalent throughout the  Middle East  and eventually entered the English language; examples are, bazaar, shawl, sash, turquoise, tiara, orange, lemon, melon, peach, spinach, and asparagus. Trade was one of the empires main sources of revenue, along with agriculture and tribute. Other accomplishments of Dariuss reign included codification of the data, a universal legal system upon which much of later Iranian law would be based, and construction of a new capital at Persepolis, where vassal states would offer their yearly tribute at the festival celebrating the spring equinox. In its art and architecture, Persepolis reflected Dariuss percept ion of himself as the leader of conglomerates of people to whom he had given a new and single identity. The Achaemenid art and architecture found there is at once distinctive and also highly eclectic. The Achaemenids took the art forms and the cultural and religious traditions of many of the ancient Middle Eastern peoples and combined them into a single form. This Achaemenid artistic style is evident in the iconography of Persepolis, which celebrates the king and the office of the monarch. Envisioning a new world empire based on a fusion of Greek and Iranian culture and  ideals,  Ã¢â‚¬â€¹Alexander the Great  of Macedon accelerated the disintegration of the Achaemenid Empire. He was first accepted as leader by the fractious Greeks in 336 B.C. and by 334 had advanced to Asia Minor, an Iranian satrapy. In quick  succession,  he took Egypt, Babylonia, and then, over the course of two years, the heart of the  Achaemenid EmpireSusa, Ecbatana, and Persepolisthe last of which he burned. Alexander married Roxana (Roshanak), the daughter of the most powerful of the Bactrian chiefs (Oxyartes, who revolted in present-day Tadzhikistan), and in 324 commanded his officers and 10,000 of his soldiers to marry Iranian women. The mass wedding, held at Susa, was a model of Alexanders desire to consummate the union of the Greek and Iranian peoples. These plans ended in 323 B.C., however, when Alexander was struck with fever and died in Babylon, leaving no heir. His empire was d ivided among four of his generals. Seleucus, one of these generals, who became ruler of Babylon in 312, gradually reconquered most of Iran. Under Seleucuss son, Antiochus I, many Greeks entered Iran, and Hellenistic motifs in art, architecture, and urban planning became prevalent. Although the Seleucids faced challenges from the  Ptolemies of Egypt  and from the growing power of Rome, the main threat came from the province of Fars (Partha to the Greeks). Arsaces (of the seminomadic Parni tribe), whose name was used by all subsequent Parthian kings, revolted against the Seleucid governor in 247 B.C. and established a dynasty, the Arsacids, or Parthians. During the second century, the Parthians were able to extend their rule to Bactria, Babylonia, Susiana, and Media, and, under Mithradates II (123-87 B.C.), Parthian conquests stretched from India to Armenia. After the victories of Mithradates II, the Parthians began to claim descent from both the Greeks and the Achaemenids. They spoke a language similar to that of the Achaemenids, used the Pahlavi script, and established an administrative system based on Achaemenid precedents. Meanwhile, Ardeshir, son of the priest Papak, who claimed descent from the legendary hero Sasan, had become the Parthian governor in the Achaemenid home province of Persis (Fars). In A.D. 224 he overthrew the last Parthian king and established the Sassanid dynasty, which was to last 400 years. The Sassanids established an empire roughly within the frontiers achieved by the Achaemenids  [c, 550-330 B.C.;  with the capital at Ctesiphon. The Sassanids consciously sought to resuscitate Iranian traditions and to obliterate Greek cultural influence. Their rule was characterized by considerable centralization, ambitious urban planning, agricultural development, and technological improvements. Sassanid rulers adopted the title of shahanshah (king of kings), as sovereigns over numerous petty rulers, known as  shahrdars. Historians believe that society was divided into four classes: the priests, warriors, secretaries, and commoners. The royal princes, petty rulers, great landlords, and priests together constituted a privileged stratum, and the social system appears to have been fairly rigid. Sassanid rule and the system of social stratification were reinforced by Zoroastrianism, which became the state religion. The Zoroastrian priesthood became immensely powerful. The head of the priestly class, the  mobadan  mobad, along with the military commander, the  eran  spahbod, and the head of the bureaucracy, were among the great men of the state. Rome, with its capital at  Constantinople, had replaced Greece as Irans principal Western enemy, and hostilities between the two empires were frequent. Shahpur I (241-72), son and successor of Ardeshir, waged successful campaigns against the Romans and in 260 even took the emperor Valerian prisoner. Chosroes I (531-79), also known as Anushirvan the Just, is the most celebrated of the Sassanid rulers. He reformed the tax system and reorganized the army and the bureaucracy, tying the army more closely to the central government than to local lords. His reign witnessed the rise of the  dihqans  (literally, village lords), the petty landholding nobility who were the backbone of later Sassanid provincial administration and the tax collection system. Chosroes was a great builder, embellishing his capital, founding new towns, and constructing new buildings. Under his auspices, too, many books were brought from India and translated into Pahlavi. Some of these later found their way into the literature of the Islamic world. The reign of Chosroes II (591-628) was characterized by the wasteful splendor and lavishness of the court. Toward the end of his  reign  Chosroes IIs power declined. In renewed fighting with the Byzantines, he enjoyed initial successes, captured Damascus, and seized the Holy Cross in Jerusalem. But counterattacks by the Byzantine emperor Heraclius brought enemy forces deep into Sassanid territory. Years of warfare exhausted both the Byzantines and the Iranians. The later Sassanids were further weakened by economic decline, heavy taxation, religious unrest, rigid social stratification, the increasing power of the provincial landholders, and a rapid turnover of rulers. These factors facilitated the Arab invasion in the seventh century. Data as of December 1987Source: Library of Congress Country Studies Corrections *Jona Lendering  points out that a 547/546 date for the fall of Croesus is based on the  Nabonidus Chronicle  whose reading is uncertain. Rather than  Croesus  it may have been the ruler of Uratu. Lendering says the fall of Lydia should be listed as the 540s. **He also advises that cuneiform sources start to mention Cambyses as sole ruler in August 530, so the date of his death the following year is wrong.

Underclass stereotypes in the media.

Underclass stereotypes in the media. STEREOTYPING IN THE MEDIA:A response to Gregory Mantsios' essay Media Magic: Making Class InvisibleFor decades media has helped stratify culture by serving as a means to inform the public of the occurrences that take place in our society. "The mass media is arguably the most influential in molding public consciousness" (Mantsios 101). The more media plays a prominent role in highlighting situations in our society the more media stereotypes become inevitable. Stereotypes in the media usually classify individuals by their class, ethnicity, occupation, gender, and sexual orientation, giving the audience a generalized ideal of the characteristics of a particular group. However, Mantsios' essay Media Magic: Making Class Invisible focuses on the segregation of the middle-class and under-class, creating a division between one another, where "we" or "us" the middle-class are humiliated by "them" the under-class. False representation of the under-class and the victimization of the middle-clas s by the under-class are two points continuously exemplified in the media today.English: Differences in national income equality a...The media has a tendency "to focus on the plight of the poor, these stories are about middle-class opposition to the poor. Such stories tell us that the poor are an inconvenience and an irritation" (Mantsios 103).In a recent article titled Closing the Education Achievement Gap, the government is to make a major provision to the 1965 Elementary and Secondary Education Act. The Act will provide $200 billion dollars, from "our" pockets, to schools with children from low-income families. The goal of the revision is to raise the achievement of children in low-income schools to those in higher-income, predominately white, families.When reading over the editorial and reviewing the photograph that accompanied the article, it was evident that the term "low-income" was portrayed by grueling neighborhoods populated by ethnic and visible minorities. The photos por trayed are a false representation...

Qualities of Successful Marriages Personal Statement

Qualities of Successful Marriages - Personal Statement Example But they have become the best of companions while respecting and incorporating each other's differences. What I learned from my family's positive example has translated into my relationships with friends and boyfriends. I try to keep an open mind so that I can enjoy what they enjoy and really be part of their life. During my early teenage years I went through a phase of thinking that I needed to have as many friends as possible to seem "popular." This led me to choose quantity over quality and although I became "friends" with more people, the depth of each friendship became less and less. I could tell what was happening because I barely spent time with the close friends I had before. I went back to the way I was before, because being a really good companion felt better than being a companion to lots of people. This is a lesson that I hope to remember throughout my life so that all of my relationships with people are deep and meaningful. One of my first major relationships was not a very honest one. I cheated on him a lot, and lied about it. But I think I may have been hurting myself more than I was hurting him. The complications of that relationship have created problems in more recent relationships. Because I cheated on someone and he didn't know about it for such a long time, I started to think about the possibility and likelihood of it happening to me. My own actions have led me to paranoia and an inability to trust trustworthy people. Every time a boyfriend tells me about his day, I find myself questioning the reality of his story. I have noticed this in other Hispanic girls and think it may be true of me also that my parents are very overprotective of me when it comes to boys. This has led me to lie to my parents on more than one occasion about where I am and who I'm with. The lies I used to tell my parents led to a lot of hurt, both on their side and mine. What I have taken from my past is a stronger personal adherence to honesty. I have experienced first-hand the bad things that come from dishonesty and now know how important it is to be honest. I still have trouble trusting people who have done nothing bad to earn my distrust, so there is certainly room to grow. I think that as I continue being honest and surrounding myself in positive, honest relationships, I will regain my trust in other people. Responsibility Because my parents were so overprotective of me, I was always trying to prove to them and myself that I was independent. This need for independence led me to do responsible things. I started taking care of younger children as a babysitter when I was only thirteen, and got a "real job" when I was old enough. I was always on time to work and never missed a day. This responsibility was also reflected in school, as I always did my homework and made good grades. I reached a rebellious point in my life (perhaps because now my parents expected me to be responsible and I always wanted to disprove them) and I started to disregard my schoolwork and job commitments. I quickly realized that my irresponsibility had no positive benefits and only made me feel bad about myself, so my rebellious phase was short-lived. I also think that my job as a babysitter helped me know what it was like to be responsible for other people. As a youngest child, I never had any younger siblings to take care of and be responsible

Marriage Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Marriage - Essay Example Moreover, the arguments against same-sex marriage almost exactly track the arguments against interracial marriage, which shows that the evolution of marriage should go in the same direction – just as interracial marriage is accepted by the majority of people, so should same-sex marriage be. The History of Marriage   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The history of marriage, of course, would be the topic of a much longer discourse, so this section will only review the pertinent aspects of heterosexual marriage which impact the arguments for and against gay marriage.   Fox-Genovese (49) traces the history of marriage, stating that marriage began as a relationship between families, tribes and clans, as opposed to uniting individuals.   Marriage was transformed, however, into a right to enjoy certain benefits and privileges, along with community approval and recognition.   Fox-Genovese (50) begins her analysis of marriage by stating that Adam and Eve were created an d ordered to be fruitful and multiply, which was the basis for this original union.   In the Old Testament, women suffered greatly, as their husbands took concubines and fathered children with many other women.   At that time, marriage was mainly about families and tribes, not about the individuals themselves.   This motivation continued in pre-modern societies, as primitive groups, such as Hebrew tribes, used marriage as a way to strengthen their house.   Marriage was also typically used as a political solidification practice, as ruling families used marriage to strengthen their political rule.   Therefore, for most of millennia, marriage has been a pragmatic institution, not based upon love, but, rather, based upon economics and power consolidation.   This is shown by the pragmatics of marriage in consolidating power, and is also shown by dowries and bride prices, in which the potential husband literally paid for the privilege of marrying his future wife (Fox-Genovese, 53).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Throughout these historical eras, women were subjected to patriarchy.   The man ruled the home, and, at least in the Old Testament cases, was able to take on multiple wives, concubines and lovers without censure.   Fox-Genovese (60) states that this patriarchy was lessened, somewhat, towards the end of the 19th Century, as women gained more equality in and outside the marital unit.   Eventually, marriage evolved from its pragmatic status to one that is more egalitarian and ostensibly based upon love.   Marriage is no longer merely a way to solidify power, or a way to gain economically. It is now considered to be a sacred bond between two people in love. The emphasis is now on personal happiness, not economics, power and social ties (Fox-Genovese, 61).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Fox-Genovese (62) makes the case that marriage, historically, has been based upon practical concerns, and these concerns do not nec essarily focus upon what anti-gay marriage advocates insist are at the core of marital unions – the family and procreation.   Marriage has traditionally been based upon economic, social and political concerns, which seem to undermine the arguments against gay marriage. Another sound argument which is based upon an analysis of heterosexual marriage, which profoundly undermines the current bias against

The United States Constitution and the debates over the merits of the Research Paper

The United States Constitution and the debates over the merits of the constitution - Research Paper Example So these individuals had to come up with a government that not only stood for the sovereignty of the nation but which listened and acted on people’s worries and grievances. This was no simple role to accomplish and the best minds had to evaluate the main systems around the world to get that which would serve the country. Unfortunately, none represented the actual model that would govern the now vast American nation. 2The government model available to follow was the British one which obviously most readily understood the Britons themselves having introduced aspects of their systems in America. This however presented what these individuals feared would be inequitable distribution of power. However at the time, one thing was obvious; the system chosen for the people had to be representative of the people and had to be a choice of the people. This had been the wave at the time especially after the defeat of the monarchy system in Britain at the beginning of the century through the Glorious revolution which had prompted a parliamentary system in governance of countries. This mystery led to the establishment of a system that besides representing the people at the grassroots there would also be a national system that the people identified the state with. This led to the introduction of the federal system which sought to have overlapping governments, overlapping in the sense that the people at the lowest level would choose their respective leaders who would in turn participate in electing leaders of a higher level. This would translate to the national level; the national level is what was to be referred to as the federal government. Was a strong proponent of the federalist system which among other things sought to establish a central government? This central government would in turn oversee the implementation of the American constitution which was to guide the activities as well as participation and association of people and

Roman Empire Culture Essay Example for Free

Roman Empire Culture Essay Wikipedias entry on the Fall of the Roman Empire is a comprehensive and multifaceted survey of the scholarship which seeks to indicate a certain period or event or series of events which caused the fall of the Roman Empire. One of the main differences between the Wikipedia entry and a traditional encyclopedia entry is the extensive analysis with which the Wikipedia entry is able to devote to sub-sections and sub-theories under the general banner of discussion.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The question of assigning a specific date for the fall occupies a great deal of the Wikipedia article. The traditional date acknowledged is September 4, 476 when Romulus Augustus, Emperor of the Western Empire, was deposed by Odoacer. But the Eastern Empire continued until the fall of Constantinople nearly a century later in 1453. Other dates in contention are 395, the year of the death of Theodosius, the last time the Empire was united; the crossing of the Rhine by Germanic tribes in 406 after the withdrawal of the legions to battle Alaric I; or the disintegration of the western legions following the death of Stilicho in 408. Many scholars disdain the term â€Å"fall†, preferring to describe what was happening as a â€Å"complex transformation†.   The Wikipedia entry while seeming to dwell inordinately on a specific time or date of the fall is in actuality providing the researcher with a varied primer on the myriad theories which attend the question of historical dates of the Roman Empires fall.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Though the tone of the Wikipedia entry is scholarly, the lengthy digressions and somewhat scattered patterns of information make the entry less streamlined than a typical encyclopedia entry. In addition, the numerous off-site links and cross-references can prove to be distractive. And although the Wikipedia entry itself closely resembles scholarly writing there can be no assurance regarding the veracity of off-site links.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The most obvious bias that is apparent in the Wikipedia entry is resounding insistence that there is a date of collapse for the Roman Empire. The entry cites Edward Gibbon who argues the Roman population lost its way by allowing the Germanic tribes and other barbarian mercenaries a greater role in defending its interests. Gibbon claims Christianity was a contributing factor as well, turning the populations attention to other-worldly as opposed to here-and-now events.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Rather than examine contradictory theories in detail, the Wikipedia entry consumjes most of its energy revealing the survey of theories which argue for a date of collapse for the Roma Empire.   Wikipedia surveys the   â€Å"Pirenne Thesis†, wherein Henri Pirenne argued the Empire continued until the Muslim conquests in the 7th century, which disrupted Mediterranean trade routes and depressed the European economy. Pirenne sees the crowning of the Frankish King Charlemagne as the first Holy Roman Emperor in 800 as a continuation of the Empire.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   But it is J. B. Bury’s contention in his â€Å"History of the Later Roman Empire†which receives critical attention in the Wikipedia article. His theory is that what amounted to a â€Å"perfect storm† of events combined to spell the downfall of the Empire:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   *Economic decline   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   *Germanic expansion in the population and military   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   *De-population of Italy   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   *The treason of Stilicho   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   *The murder of Aetius and the lack of a leader to replace him   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Bury says the Empire could have survived any of these events separately, but could not overcome the convergence of them.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   William Carroll Bark’s â€Å"Origins of the Medieval World† reasons that basic economics was the Empire’s undoing. As a pre-cursor to feudalism, the tenant farmer’s obligation was to pay a fixed assessment of taxes on his grain supply. The oppressive taxes kept the farmers impoverished and unlikely to move into the more prosperous middle class. In fact, what middle class there was was forced to become collectors of the taxes for the inefficient central government. Government coffers suffered as a result. Also, the scarcity of gold late in the Empire made matters worse. Inflation of the currency in relation to its value in gold resulted in more people demanding payment in gold. The government’s cash-flow problems required them to seek cheaper mercenaries as defenders.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Radovan Richta says technology contributed to the Empire’s demise. The Germanic invention of the horseshoe and use of the new Chinese compass allowed mercenaries quicker access to Roman defenses.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Arnold Toynbee and James Burke also examine economic causes at the root of the Empire’s fall. The Romans had no budgetary system and wasted available resources as a result. The economy was basically based on plunder rather than production of new goods, and that declined along with territorial expansion. Landowners were exempt from taxation, making revenue production inefficient and unfair. The middle-class, the backbone of any free economy, was nearly non-existent. Exports were scarce. Military and bureaucratic costs increased. In overthrowing Romulus Augustus, the barbarian conqueror Odoacer assumed neither the title nor the responsibility of governance.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   William H. McNeill in â€Å"Plagues and Peoples† notes a 20-year-long plague in the late second century killed half of Europe’s population. The reduced tax base was unable to support the government and military and the resultant economic and social decline also killed the Empire.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚   Further theories of the cause of collapse proliferate through the Wikipedia article. So much so that one begins to feel that each sub-section of the article has been contributed by an enthusiast of that particularly pet-theory, sacrificing a general tone of scholarship for a tone of   specificity and personal   expertise. Examples of this include Wikipedias survey of Peter Heathers theory: that the threat posed by the Sassanid Persian Empire has been overlooked as a cause for the Roman Empires fall. He used archaeological evidence to suggest the Romans were stretched militarily by their preoccupation with the Persians, allowing a succession of Huns, Goths, and Germanic barbarians access to their territory.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A researcher who is searching for a very good primer regarding the abundance of theories which exist in scholarship to examine the historicism of the Roman Empires fall will find excellent information in the Wikipedia article, as a general and unverified outline of the scholarship. However, a deep-researcher would probably find the entry inconsistent, erratic, and of little value for serious scholarship as a go-to source; rather the Wikipedia seems to serve better as a thumbnail sketch of info and links to other sources of potential value. REFERENCE   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The Fall of the Roman Empire. wikipedia.com. Retrieved from the Internet March 16, 2007.